Hacker is a term that has been used to mean a variety of different things in computing. Про хакеров.
Мне нужна помощь! Хакер (англ. hacker, от to hack — рубить, кромсать) — чрезвычайно квалифицированный ИТ-специалист,
человек, который понимает самые глубины работы компьютерных систем.
Изначально хакерами называли программистов, которые исправляли ошибки в
программном обеспечении каким-либо быстрым и далеко не всегда элегантным
(в контексте используемых в программе стиля программирования и ее общей
структуры, дизайна интерфейсов) или профессиональным способом; слово hack
пришло из лексикона хиппи, в русском языке есть идентичное жаргонное
слово «врубаться». Сейчас хакеров очень часто отождествляют с
компьютерными взломщиками — крэкерами (англ. cracker, от to crack — раскалывать, разламывать); однако такое употребление слова «хакер» неверно.
Хакерами называют, например, Линуса Торвальдса, Ричарда Столлмана, Ларри Уолла, Дональда Кнута, Бьёрна Страуструпа, Эрика Рэймонда, Эндрю Таненбаума и других создателей открытых систем мирового уровня. В России ярким примером хакера является Крис Касперски.
Иногда этот термин применяют для обозначения специалистов вообще — в том контексте, что они обладают очень детальными знаниями в каких-либо вопросах или имеют достаточно нестандартное и конструктивное мышление. С момента появления этого слова в форме компьютерного термина (1960-е годы), у него появлялись новые, часто различные значения.
Хакер (изначально — кто-либо, делающий мебель при помощи топора):
В последнее время слово «хакер» имеет менее общее определение — этим термином называют всех сетевых взломщиков, создателей компьютерных вирусов и других компьютерных преступников, таких как кардеры, крэкеры, скрипт-кидди. Многие компьютерные взломщики по праву могут называться хакерами, потому как действительно соответствуют всем (или почти всем) вышеперечисленным определениям слова «хакер». Хотя в каждом отдельном случае следует понимать, в каком смысле используется слово «хакер» — в смысле «знаток» или в смысле «взломщик».
В ранних значениях, в компьютерной сфере, «хакерами» называли программистов с более низкой квалификацией, которые писали программы соединяя вместе готовые «куски» программ других программистов, что приводило к увеличению объёмов и снижению быстродействия программ. Процессоры в то время были «тихоходами» по сравнению с современными, а HDD объёмом 4,7 Гб был «крутым» для ПК. И было бы некорректно говорить о том, что «хакеры» исправляли ошибки в чужих программах.
Брюс Стерлинг в своей работе «Охота на хакеров»[2] возводит хакерское движение к движению телефонных фрикеров, которое сформировалось вокруг американского журнала TAP, изначально принадлежавшего молодёжной партии йиппи (Youth International Party), которая явно сочувствовала коммунистам. Журнал TAP представлял собою техническую программу поддержки (Technical Assistance Program) партии Эбби Хоффмана (Abbie Hoffman), помогающую неформалам бесплатно общаться по межгороду и производить политические изменения в своей стране, порой несанкционированные властями.
Персонажи-хакеры достаточно распространены в научной фантастике, особенно в жанре киберпанк. В этом контексте хакеры обычно являются протагонистами, которые борются с угнетающими структурами, которыми преимущественно являются транснациональные корпорации. Борьба обычно идёт за свободу и доступ к информации. Часто в подобной борьбе звучат коммунистические или анархические лозунги.
В России, Европе и Америке взлом компьютеров, уничтожение информации, создание и распространение компьютерных вирусов и вредоносных программ преследуется законом. Злостные взломщики согласно международным законам по борьбе с киберпреступностью подлежат экстрадиции подобно военным преступникам.
Первоначально появилось жаргонное слово «to hack» (рубить, кромсать). Оно означало процесс внесения изменений «на лету» в свою или чужую программу (предполагалось, что имеются исходные тексты программы). Отглагольное существительное «hack» означало результаты такого изменения. Весьма полезным и достойным делом считалось не просто сообщить автору программы об ошибке, а сразу предложить ему такой хак, который её исправляет. Слово «хакер» изначально произошло именно отсюда.
Хак, однако, не всегда имел целью исправление ошибок — он мог менять поведение программы вопреки воле её автора. Именно подобные скандальные инциденты, в основном, и становились достоянием гласности, а понимание хакерства как активной обратной связи между авторами и пользователями программ никогда журналистов не интересовало. Затем настала эпоха закрытого программного кода, исходные тексты многих программ стали недоступными, и положительная роль хакерства начала сходить на нет — огромные затраты времени на хак закрытого исходного кода могли быть оправданы только очень сильной мотивацией — такой, как желание заработать деньги или скандальную популярность.
В результате появилось новое, искажённое понимание слова «хакер»: оно означает злоумышленника, использующего обширные компьютерные знания для осуществления несанкционированных, иногда вредоносных действий в компьютере — взлом компьютеров, написание и распространение компьютерных вирусов. Впервые в этом значении слово «хакер» было употреблено Клиффордом Столлом в его книге «Яйцо кукушки», а его популяризации немало способствовал голливудский кинофильм «Хакеры». В подобном компьютерном сленге слова «хак», «хакать» обычно относятся ко взлому защиты компьютерных сетей, веб-серверов и тому подобному.
Отголоском негативного восприятия понятия «хакер» является слово «кулхацкер» (от англ. cool hacker), получившее распространение в отечественной околокомпьютерной среде практически с ростом популярности исходного слова. Этим термином обычно называют дилетанта, старающегося походить на профессионала хотя бы внешне — при помощи употребления якобы «профессиональных» хакерских терминов и жаргона, использования «типа хакерских» программ без попыток разобраться в их работе и т. п. Название «кулхацкер» иронизирует над тем, что такой человек, считая себя крутым хакером (англ. cool hacker), настолько безграмотен, что даже не может правильно прочитать по-английски то, как он себя называет. В англоязычной среде такие люди получили наименование «скрипт-кидди».
Некоторые из личностей, известных как поборники свободного и открытого программного обеспечения — например, Ричард Столлман — призывают к использованию слова «хакер» только в первоначальном смысле.
«Глайдер», неофициальный символ движения хакеров
Весьма подробные объяснения термина в его первоначальном смысле приведены в статье Эрика Рэймонда «Как стать хакером»[3]. Также Эрик Рэймонд предложил в октябре 2003 года эмблему для хакерского сообщества — символ «глайдера» (glider) из игры «Жизнь». Поскольку сообщество хакеров не имеет единого центра или официальной структуры, предложенный символ нельзя считать официальным
символом хакерского движения. По этим же причинам невозможно судить о
распространённости этой символики среди хакеров — хотя вполне вероятно,
что какая-то часть хакерского сообщества приняла её.
Today, mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1980s. This includes what hacker slang calls "script kiddies," people breaking into computers using programs written by others, with very little knowledge about the way they work. This usage has become so predominant that the general public is unaware that different meanings exist. While the self-designation of hobbyists as hackers is acknowledged by all three kinds of hackers, and the computer security hackers accept all uses of the word, people from the programmer subculture consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and emphasize the difference between the two by calling security breakers "crackers" (analogous to a safecracker).
Currently, "hacker" is used in two main conflicting ways
As a result of this difference, the definition is the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural jargon and used negatively,[8] including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware. Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still stubbornly use the term in both original senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended. It is noteworthy, however, that the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized. "Hacker" can therefore be seen as a shibboleth, identifying those who use the technically oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community.
A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that "hacking" describes a collection of skills which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to locksmithing, specifically picking locks, which — aside from its being a skill with a fairly high tropism to 'classic' hacking — is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of script kiddies in the popular usage of "hacker", despite the lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base. Sometimes, hacker also is simply used synonymous to geek: "A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals[...] It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment."[9]
Fred Shapiro thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found out that the malicious connotations were present at MIT in 1963 already (quoting The Tech, a MIT Student Magazine) and then referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,[10][11] that is, the phreaker movement that developed into the computer security hacker subculture of today.
In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on security
mechanisms of computer and network systems. While including those who
endeavor to strengthen such mechanisms, it is more often used by the mass media
and popular culture to refer to those who seek access despite these
security measures. That is, the media portrays the 'hacker' as a
villain. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in
correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. They
operate under a code,
which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad,
but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking
into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done
ethically and legally. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations
that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context.
The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and the microcomputer BBS scene of the 1980s. It is implicated with 2600: The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup.
In 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today (with commentary by Philip Zimbardo) used the term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers". It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film Tron, Kevin Flynn (Jeff Bridges) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here". CLU is the software he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon,[12] but there was no public awareness about such activities.[13] However, the release of the film WarGames that year, featuring a computer intrusion into NORAD, raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, known as The 414s, broke into computer systems throughout the United States and Canada, including those of Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Security Pacific Bank.[14] The case quickly grew media attention,[14][15] and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in Newsweek entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover.[16] The Newsweek article appears to be the first use of the word hacker by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense.
Pressured by media coverage, congressman Dan Glickman called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking.[17][18] Neal Patrick testified before the U.S. House of Representatives on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the House that year.[19] As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, grey hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentor's "The Hacker Manifesto", published 1986 in Phrack.
Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title "Stalking the Wily Hacker", an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM. Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The popularity of Stoll's book The Cuckoo's Egg, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness.
The programmer subculture of hackers disassociates from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer the term 'cracker' for that meaning. Complaints about supposed mainstream misuse started as early as 1983, when media used "hacker" to refer to the computer criminals involved in the 414s case.[20]
In the programmer subculture of hackers, a computer hacker is a person who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term hack in this sense can be traced back to "describe the elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise" (Levy, 1984 p. 10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honour among like-minded peers as "to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity" (Levy, 1984 p. 10) The MIT's Tech Model Railroad Club Dictionary defined hack in 1959 (not yet in a computer context) as "1) an article or project without constructive end; 2) a project undertaken on bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)." "hacker" was defined as "one who hacks, or makes them." Much of the TMRC's jargon was later imported into early computing culture, because the club started using a DEC PDP-1 and applied its local model railroad slang in this computing context. Despite being incomprehensible to outsiders, the slang became popular in MIT's computing environments outside the club. Other examples of jargon imported from the club are 'losing' "when a piece of equipment is not working"[21] and 'munged' "when a piece of equipment is ruined".[21]
According to Eric S. Raymond,[22] the Open source and Free Software hacker subculture developed in the 1960s among 'academic hackers'[23] working on early minicomputers in computer science environments in the United States.
Hackers were influenced by and absorbed many ideas of key technological developments and the people associated with them. Most notable is the technical culture of the pioneers of the Arpanet, starting in 1969. The PDP-10 machine AI at MIT, which was running the ITS operating system and which was connected to the Arpanet, provided an early hacker meeting point. After 1980 the subculture coalesced with the culture of Unix. Since the mid-1990s, it has been largely coincident with what is now called the free software and open source movement.
Many programmers have been labeled "great hackers",[24] but the specifics of who that label applies to is a matter of opinion. Certainly major contributors to computer science such as Edsger Dijkstra and Donald Knuth, as well as the inventors of popular software such as Linus Torvalds (Linux), and Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson (the C programming language) are likely to be included in any such list; see also List of programmers. People primarily known for their contributions to the consciousness of the programmer subculture of hackers include Richard Stallman, the founder of the free software movement and the GNU project, president of the Free Software Foundation and author of the famous Emacs text editor as well as the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), and Eric S. Raymond, one of the founders of the Open Source Initiative and writer of the famous text The Cathedral and the Bazaar and many other essays, maintainer of the Jargon File (which was previously maintained by Guy L. Steele, Jr.).
Within the computer programmer subculture of hackers, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing code or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using inelegant kludges to accomplish programming tasks that are quick, but ugly, inelegant, difficult to extend, hard to maintain and inefficient. This derogatory form of the noun "hack" derives from the everyday English sense "to cut or shape by or as if by crude or ruthless strokes" [Merriam-Webster] and is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker" who produces "cool" or "neat" hacks. In other words to "hack" at an original creation, as if with an axe, is to force-fit it into being usable for a task not intended by the original creator, and a "hacker" would be someone who does this habitually. (The original creator and the hacker may be the same person.) This usage is common in both programming, engineering and building. In programming, hacking in this sense appears to be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. Some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have "hack value". In non-software engineering, the culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a "hacker" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and so has some sort of marketable skills. There is always, however, the understanding that a more skillful, or technical, logician could have produced successful modifications that would not be considered a "hack-job". The definition is similar to other, non-computer based, uses of the term "hack-job". For instance, a professional modification of a production sports car into a racing machine would not be considered a hack-job, but a cobbled together backyard mechanic's result could be. Even though the outcome of a race of the two machines could not be assumed, a quick inspection would instantly reveal the difference in the level of professionalism of the designers. The adjective associated with hacker is "hackish" (see the Jargon file).
In a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general, without necessarily referring to computers, especially at the MIT.[3] That is, people who apply the creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example reality hackers or urban spelunkers (exploring undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings). One specific example are clever pranks[25] traditionally perpetrated by MIT students, with the perpetrator being called hacker. For example, when MIT students surreptitiously put a fake police car atop the dome on MIT's Building 10,[26] that was a hack in this sense, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Another type of hacker is now called a reality hacker. More recent examples of usage for almost any type of playful cleverness are wetware hackers ("hack your brain"), media hackers and "hack your reputation". In a similar vein, a "hack" may refer to a math hack, that is, a clever solution to a mathematical problem. The GNU General Public License has been described as[who?] a copyright hack because it cleverly uses the copyright laws for a purpose the lawmakers did not foresee. All of these uses now also seem to be spreading beyond MIT as well.
A large overlaps between hobbyist hackers and the programmer subculture hackers existed during the Homebrew Club's days, but the interests and values of both communities somewhat diverged. Today, the hobbyists focus on commercial computer and video games, software cracking and exceptional computer programming (demo scene). Also of interest to some members of this group is the modification of computer hardware and other electronic devices, see modding.
Electronics hobbyists working on machines other than computers also
fall into this category. This includes people who do simple
modifications to graphing calculators, video game consoles, electronic musical keyboards or other device (see CueCat
for a notorious example) to expose or add functionality to a device
that was unintended for use by end users by the company who created it. A
number of techno musicians have modified 1980s-era Casio SK-1 sampling keyboards to create unusual sounds by doing circuit bending:
connecting wires to different leads of the integrated circuit chips.
The results of these DIY experiments range from opening up previously
inaccessible features that were part of the chip design to producing the
strange, dis-harmonic digital tones that became part of the techno
music style. Companies take different attitudes towards such practices,
ranging from open acceptance (such as Texas Instruments for its graphing calculators and Lego for its Lego Mindstorms robotics gear) to outright hostility (such as Microsoft's attempts to lock out Xbox hackers or the DRM routines on Blu-ray Disc players designed to sabotage compromised players.[citation needed])
In this context, a "hack" refers to a program that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a video game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for Palm OS users (until the 4th iteration of this operating system), a "hack" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. Term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to the jailbreaking of iPods.
According to Raymond, hackers from the programmer subculture usually work openly and use their real name, while computer security hackers prefer secretive groups and identity-concealing aliases.[29] Also, their activities in practice are largely distinct. The former focus on creating new and improving existing infrastructure (especially the software environment they work with), while the latter primarily and strongly emphasize the general act of circumvention of security measures, with the effective use of the knowledge (which can be to report and help fixing the security bugs, or exploitation for criminal purpose) being only rather secondary. The most visible difference in these views was in the design of the MIT hackers' Incompatible Timesharing System, which deliberately did not have any security measures.
There are some subtle overlaps, however, since basic knowledge about computer security is also common within the programmer subculture of hackers. For example, Ken Thompson noted during his 1983 Turing Award lecture that it is possible to add code to the UNIX "login" command that would accept either the intended encrypted password or a particular known password, allowing a back door into the system with the latter password. He named his invention the "Trojan horse". Furthermore, Thompson argued, the C compiler itself could be modified to automatically generate the rogue code, to make detecting the modification even harder. Because the compiler is itself a program generated from a compiler, the Trojan horse could also be automatically installed in a new compiler program, without any detectable modification to the source of the new compiler. However, Thompson disassociated himself strictly from the computer security hackers: "I would like to criticize the press in its handling of the 'hackers,' the 414 gang, the Dalton gang, etc. The acts performed by these kids are vandalism at best and probably trespass and theft at worst. ... I have watched kids testifying before Congress. It is clear that they are completely unaware of the seriousness of their acts."[30]
The programmer subculture of hackers sees secondary circumvention of security mechanisms as legitimate if it is done to get practical barriers out of the way for doing actual work. In special forms, that can even be an expression of playful cleverness.[31] However, the systematic and primary engagement in such activities is not one of the actual interests of the programmer subculture of hackers and it does not have significance in its actual activities, either.[29] A further difference is that, historically, members of the programmer subculture of hackers were working at academic institutions and used the computing environment there. In contrast, the prototypical computer security hacker had access exclusively to a home computer and a modem. However since the mid-1990s, with home computers that could run Unix-like operating systems and with inexpensive internet home access being available for the first time, many people from outside of the academic world started to take part in the programmer subculture of hacking.
Since the mid-1980s, there are some overlaps in ideas and members with the computer security hacking community. The most prominent case is Robert T. Morris, who was a user of MIT-AI, yet wrote the Morris worm. The Jargon File hence calls him "a true hacker who blundered".[32] Nevertheless, members of the programmer subculture have a tendency to look down on and disassociate from these overlaps. They commonly refer disparagingly to people in the computer security subculture as crackers, and refuse to accept any definition of hacker that encompasses such activities. The computer security hacking subculture on the other hand tends not to distinguish between the two subcultures as harshly, instead acknowledging that they have much in common including many members, political and social goals, and a love of learning about technology. They restrict the use of the term cracker to their categories of script kiddies and black hat hackers instead.
All three subcultures have relations to hardware modifications. In the early days of network hacking, phreaks were building blue boxes and various variants. The programmer subculture of hackers has stories about several hardware hacks in its folklore, such as a mysterious 'magic' switch attached to a PDP-10 computer in MIT's AI lab, that, when turned off, crashed the computer.[33] The early hobbyist hackers built their home computers themselves, from construction kits. However, all these activities have died out during the 1980s, when the phone network switched to digitally controlled switchboards, causing network hacking to shift to dialing remote computers with modems, when pre-assembled inexpensive home computers were available, and when academic institutions started to give individual mass-produced workstation computers to scientists instead of using a central timesharing system. The only kind of widespread hardware modification nowadays is case modding.
An encounter of the programmer and the computer security hacker subculture occurred at the end of the 1980s, when a group of computer security hackers, sympathizing with the Chaos Computer Club (who disclaimed any knowledge in these activities), broke into computers of American military organizations and academic institutions. They sold data from these machines to the Soviet secret service, one of them in order to fund his drug addiction. The case could be solved when Clifford Stoll, a scientist working as a system administrator, found ways to log the attacks and to trace them back (with the help of many others). 23, a German film adaption with fictional elements, shows the events from the attackers' perspective. Stoll described the case in his book The Cuckoo's Egg and in the TV documentary The KGB, the Computer, and Me from the other perspective. According to Eric S. Raymond, it "nicely illustrates the difference between 'hacker' and 'cracker'. Stoll's portrait of himself, his lady Martha, and his friends at Berkeley and on the Internet paints a marvelously vivid picture of how hackers and the people around them like to live and how they think."[34]
Se spune despre hackeri că sunt pasionați ai informaticii care se
ocupă în special cu "spargerea" codurilor unor sisteme informatice. Este
necesară o definire clară a termenilor "hacker" și "cracker":
- (în vernacular) cel care sparge/se infiltrează în calculatoarele altora[1][2] (cuvântul corect pentru asta este de fapt cracker,[2][3][4][5] sau sinonimul său „pălărie neagră”).[6] Acest cuvânt provine de la ocupația favorită a crackerilor și anume de a sparge parole. Se poate vorbi atât de crackeri care sparg programe shareware sau altfel de software sau media protejate, cât și de crackeri care sparg calculatoare și obțin accesul la informații confidențiale (de exemplu numere de cărți de credit), sau virusează calculatorul altora (de exemplu, pentru a-l folosi drept fabrică de spam sau a găzdui pornografie, de obicei ilegală, în scop de câștig comercial); sinonime: spărgător de programe și/sau spărgător de calculatoare;
- există o variantă de crackeri-hackeri care sparg sisteme informatice doar pentru a demonstra existența unor vulnerabiltăți în sistem, pe urmă comunicând proprietarilor/producătorilor sistemelor existența acestor exploituri și modul în care se pot proteja de astfel de atacuri (ei sunt numiți crackeri etici sau hackeri etici). Ei pot fi numiți și pălării albe (în limba engleză, „white hats”). Prin urmare, hacker etic este cineva care poate intra într-un sistem informatic pe alte căi decât cele oficiale, pentru a demonstra existența unor probleme de securitate și eventual a le remedia/elimina. Câteva exemple, chiar din România sunt (în ordine alfabetică): Alien Hackers, DefCamp , HackersBlog și Sysboard.
- (super)experți în tehnologii software și/sau hardware;[3]
- hobbyiști care trec peste granițele aparente existente în diverse dispozitive hardware și/sau în diverse programe de calculator.[2][3][7]
Ziarele americane au publicat numeroase articole care spuneau Un anumit hacker a spart un anumit sistem informatic, însemnând de fapt Un anumit expert în calculatoare a spart un anumit sistem informatic.[8][9] Folosirea termenului este corectă, căci dacă oamenii respectivi n-ar fi fost experți în calculatoare, nu ar fi putut sparge astfel de sisteme (pe atunci nu apăruseră haxorii, adică crackeri care nu se pricep la programare și utilizează pentru spart programele făcute de alții). Dar asocierea cuvântului hacker (expert în calculatoare) cu operațiuni imorale și/sau ilegale este doar „între urechile” publicului larg, care a citit astfel de articole, și a ramas cu impresia greșită (prejudecata, stereotipul) că hackerii (în general) ar fi niște infractori.
Se mai pot deosebi următoarele sensuri specializate (din subcultura informaticienilor) ale cuvântului hacker:
- cineva care cunoaște foarte bine un limbaj de programare sau mediu de programare, astfel încât poate scrie un program fără niciun efort aparent;
- cineva care inventează, proiectează, dezvoltă, implementează, testează sau îmbunătățește o tehnologie;
- cineva care oferă soluții neconvenționale dar adecvate împotriva exploiturilor, erorilor și ale unor alt fel de probleme, cu ajutorul mijloacelor disponibile.
Că a fi hacker sau cracker sunt două lucruri diferite, o arată hackerii Steve Gibson și Eric Steven Raymond. Gibson precizează:
Dacă mulți infractori informatici nu sunt prinși este din cauză că Poliția nu apreciază gravitatea unor astfel de fapte. Conform lui Steve Gibson, costul unei investigații FBI asupra unei infracțiuni informatice se ridică la USD 200 000,[12] ceea ce face FBI-ul să urmărească doar infracțiunile informatice foarte grave; dacă dauna este sub USD 5000 se consideră că nu s-a comis nicio infracțiune.[12] În schimb, costurile procesului Ministerului Public olandez contra lui Holleeder (un infractor clasic) au fost estimate la cel puțin 70 de milioane de Euro.[necesită citare]
Motivațiile tipice pentru spărgătorii de calculatoare sunt: bani, distracție, ego, cauză social-politică (activism), admitere într-un anume grup social și obținerea unui statut social.[13] Banii pot fi obținuți de exemplu prin a afla numere de cărți de credit sau prin șantajarea unor firme, amenințate cu blocarea sitului lor de internet.[13] Distracție înseamnă că motivația de a sparge sisteme informatice nu este cea de a produce daune, ci instinctul de joc al lui Homo ludens, adică comportamentul jucăuș și de a face glume.[13] Ego: motivația constă în satisfacția datorată învingerii unor bariere hard/soft prin creativitate informatică.[13] Căuzașii (hacktiviștii) se folosesc de puterea pe care spargerea de calculatoare le-o conferă pentru a promova cauza în care cred cu tărie (drepturile omului, drepturile animalelor, adoptarea Sharia, etc.).[13] Intrarea în grupul social al hackerilor este determinată de merite dovedite în activitatea proprie ca hacker, ageamii nefiind admiși în astfel de cercuri.[13] Statutul social în ciberspațiu poate fi obținut prin a comunica altora experiența obținută de hacker, făcând astfel dovada priceperii proprii, și a înainta prin astfel astfel de conversații și contribuții în ierarhia socială a diverselor canale IRC pe care discută hackerii.[13]
Referindu-ne la hackerii care comit infracțiuni, numiți mai corect crackeri sau spărgători de calculatoare, din informațiile publicate de FBI nu ar rezulta că cei care comit infracțiuni informatice ar avea vreo etică respectabilă, ei comițând tot felul de fapte care pe lângă a fi infracțiuni sunt fapte profund antisociale (furt, fraudă, escrocherie, violarea dreptului la privacy, furt de identitate, șantaj, hărțuire, etc.) iar păgubiții sunt adesea oameni de rând, nu mari companii cărora li s-ar putea reproșa ceva.[14][15]
După Sam Williams, a existat într-adevăr o etică a hackerilor,[8] dar pe vremea respectivă hackerii nu erau infractori, ci doar informaticieni motivați de curiozitate și spirit de joacă. Epitetul de hacker aplicat infractorilor ar proveni după el din faptul că ziarele au luat notă că primii infractori informatici care au fost judecați făceau referire la etica hackerilor (ne-infractori) în apărarea proprie.[8]
Хакерами называют, например, Линуса Торвальдса, Ричарда Столлмана, Ларри Уолла, Дональда Кнута, Бьёрна Страуструпа, Эрика Рэймонда, Эндрю Таненбаума и других создателей открытых систем мирового уровня. В России ярким примером хакера является Крис Касперски.
Иногда этот термин применяют для обозначения специалистов вообще — в том контексте, что они обладают очень детальными знаниями в каких-либо вопросах или имеют достаточно нестандартное и конструктивное мышление. С момента появления этого слова в форме компьютерного термина (1960-е годы), у него появлялись новые, часто различные значения.
Содержание[убрать] |
[править] Различные значения слова
Jargon File даёт следующее определение[1]:Хакер (изначально — кто-либо, делающий мебель при помощи топора):
- Человек, увлекающийся исследованием подробностей (деталей) программируемых систем, изучением вопроса повышения их возможностей, в противоположность большинству пользователей, которые предпочитают ограничиваться изучением необходимого минимума. RFC 1983 усиливает это определение следующим образом: «Человек, наслаждающийся доскональным пониманием внутренних действий систем, компьютеров и компьютерных сетей в частности».
- Кто-либо программирующий с энтузиазмом (даже одержимо) или любящий программировать, а не просто теоретизировать о программировании.
- Человек, способный ценить и понимать хакерские ценности.
- Человек, который силён в быстром программировании.
- Эксперт по отношению к определённой компьютерной программе или кто-либо часто работающий с ней; пример: «хакер Unix». (Определения 1—5 взаимосвязаны, так что один человек может попадать под несколько из них.)
- Эксперт или энтузиаст любого рода. Кто-либо может считаться «хакером астрономии», например.
- Кто-либо любящий интеллектуальные испытания, заключающиеся в творческом преодолении или обходе ограничений.
- (неодобрительно) Злоумышленник, добывающий конфиденциальную информацию в обход систем защиты (например, «хакер паролей», «сетевой хакер»). Правильный термин — взломщик, крэкер (англ. cracker).
В последнее время слово «хакер» имеет менее общее определение — этим термином называют всех сетевых взломщиков, создателей компьютерных вирусов и других компьютерных преступников, таких как кардеры, крэкеры, скрипт-кидди. Многие компьютерные взломщики по праву могут называться хакерами, потому как действительно соответствуют всем (или почти всем) вышеперечисленным определениям слова «хакер». Хотя в каждом отдельном случае следует понимать, в каком смысле используется слово «хакер» — в смысле «знаток» или в смысле «взломщик».
В ранних значениях, в компьютерной сфере, «хакерами» называли программистов с более низкой квалификацией, которые писали программы соединяя вместе готовые «куски» программ других программистов, что приводило к увеличению объёмов и снижению быстродействия программ. Процессоры в то время были «тихоходами» по сравнению с современными, а HDD объёмом 4,7 Гб был «крутым» для ПК. И было бы некорректно говорить о том, что «хакеры» исправляли ошибки в чужих программах.
[править] Ценности хакеров
В среде хакеров принято ценить время своё и других хакеров («не изобретать велосипед»), что, в частности, подразумевает необходимость делиться своими достижениями, создавая свободные и/или открытые программы.
[править] Социокультурные аспекты
Возникновение хакерской культуры тесно связано с пользовательскими группами мини-компьютеров PDP и ранних микрокомпьютеров.Брюс Стерлинг в своей работе «Охота на хакеров»[2] возводит хакерское движение к движению телефонных фрикеров, которое сформировалось вокруг американского журнала TAP, изначально принадлежавшего молодёжной партии йиппи (Youth International Party), которая явно сочувствовала коммунистам. Журнал TAP представлял собою техническую программу поддержки (Technical Assistance Program) партии Эбби Хоффмана (Abbie Hoffman), помогающую неформалам бесплатно общаться по межгороду и производить политические изменения в своей стране, порой несанкционированные властями.
Персонажи-хакеры достаточно распространены в научной фантастике, особенно в жанре киберпанк. В этом контексте хакеры обычно являются протагонистами, которые борются с угнетающими структурами, которыми преимущественно являются транснациональные корпорации. Борьба обычно идёт за свободу и доступ к информации. Часто в подобной борьбе звучат коммунистические или анархические лозунги.
В России, Европе и Америке взлом компьютеров, уничтожение информации, создание и распространение компьютерных вирусов и вредоносных программ преследуется законом. Злостные взломщики согласно международным законам по борьбе с киберпреступностью подлежат экстрадиции подобно военным преступникам.
[править] Исторические причины существования различий в значениях слова «хакер»
Значение слова «хакер» в первоначальном его понимании, вероятно, возникло в стенах MIT в 1960-х задолго до широкого распространения компьютеров. Тогда оно являлось частью местного сленга и могло обозначать простое, но грубое решение какой-либо проблемы; чертовски хитрую проделку студентов (обычно автора и называли хакером). До того времени слова «hack» и «hacker» использовались по разным поводам безотносительно к компьютерной технике вообще.Первоначально появилось жаргонное слово «to hack» (рубить, кромсать). Оно означало процесс внесения изменений «на лету» в свою или чужую программу (предполагалось, что имеются исходные тексты программы). Отглагольное существительное «hack» означало результаты такого изменения. Весьма полезным и достойным делом считалось не просто сообщить автору программы об ошибке, а сразу предложить ему такой хак, который её исправляет. Слово «хакер» изначально произошло именно отсюда.
Хак, однако, не всегда имел целью исправление ошибок — он мог менять поведение программы вопреки воле её автора. Именно подобные скандальные инциденты, в основном, и становились достоянием гласности, а понимание хакерства как активной обратной связи между авторами и пользователями программ никогда журналистов не интересовало. Затем настала эпоха закрытого программного кода, исходные тексты многих программ стали недоступными, и положительная роль хакерства начала сходить на нет — огромные затраты времени на хак закрытого исходного кода могли быть оправданы только очень сильной мотивацией — такой, как желание заработать деньги или скандальную популярность.
В результате появилось новое, искажённое понимание слова «хакер»: оно означает злоумышленника, использующего обширные компьютерные знания для осуществления несанкционированных, иногда вредоносных действий в компьютере — взлом компьютеров, написание и распространение компьютерных вирусов. Впервые в этом значении слово «хакер» было употреблено Клиффордом Столлом в его книге «Яйцо кукушки», а его популяризации немало способствовал голливудский кинофильм «Хакеры». В подобном компьютерном сленге слова «хак», «хакать» обычно относятся ко взлому защиты компьютерных сетей, веб-серверов и тому подобному.
Отголоском негативного восприятия понятия «хакер» является слово «кулхацкер» (от англ. cool hacker), получившее распространение в отечественной околокомпьютерной среде практически с ростом популярности исходного слова. Этим термином обычно называют дилетанта, старающегося походить на профессионала хотя бы внешне — при помощи употребления якобы «профессиональных» хакерских терминов и жаргона, использования «типа хакерских» программ без попыток разобраться в их работе и т. п. Название «кулхацкер» иронизирует над тем, что такой человек, считая себя крутым хакером (англ. cool hacker), настолько безграмотен, что даже не может правильно прочитать по-английски то, как он себя называет. В англоязычной среде такие люди получили наименование «скрипт-кидди».
Некоторые из личностей, известных как поборники свободного и открытого программного обеспечения — например, Ричард Столлман — призывают к использованию слова «хакер» только в первоначальном смысле.
[править] Хакеры в литературе
- Сергей Лукьяненко в романе «Лабиринт отражений» в качестве эпиграфа привёл отрывок из вымышленного им «Гимна хакеров»[4].
- Крис Касперски. Введение. Об авторе // Компьютерные вирусы изнутри и снаружи. — СПб.: Питер, 2006. — С. 527. — ISBN 5-469-00982-3
- Джеффри Дивер. Синее нигде = The Blue Nowhere. — 2001.
[править] Хакеры в кино
- Виртуальная реальность / VR.5 (1995)
- Сеть (1995)
- Хакеры (1995)
- Нирвана (1997)
- Повелитель сети / Skyggen (1998)
- Матрица (1999)
- Пираты Силиконовой долины (1999)
- Взлом (2000)
- Антитраст / Antitrust (2001)
- Медвежатник (2001)
- Охотник за кодом / Storm Watch (Code Hunter) (2001)
- Пароль «Рыба-меч» (2001)
- Энигма (2001)
- Версия 1.0 (2004)
- Огненная стена (2006)
- Сеть 2.0 / The Net 2.0 (2006)
- Хоттабыч (2006)
- Крепкий орешек 4.0 (2007)
- Сеть (многосерийный фильм, Россия) (2007)
- Bloody Monday (2008) — дорама по сюжету одноимённой манги
- Девушка с татуировкой дракона (2009)
- Социальная сеть (2010)
[править] Известные люди
[править] Известные хакеры (в первоначальном смысле слова)
- Линус Торвальдс — создатель открытого ядра Linux[5]
- Ларри Уолл — создатель языка и системы программирования Perl
- Ричард Столлман — основатель концепции свободного программного обеспечения
- Джеф Раскин — специалист по компьютерным интерфейсам, наиболее известен как инициатор проекта Macintosh в конце 1970-x.
- Эрик Рэймонд основатель Open Source Initiative
- Тим Бернерс-Ли — изобретатель Всемирной паутины (WWW), получивший немало наград, включая Премию тысячелетия в области технологий.
[править] Известные взломщики
- Роберт Моррис — автор Червя Морриса 1988 года. (На самом деле червь Морриса был лабораторным опытом, поэтому взломщиком его можно считать условно.)[6]
- Адриан Ламо — известен взломом Yahoo, Citigroup, Bank of America и Cingular.
- Джонатан Джеймс — американский хакер, стал первым несовершеннолетним, осужденным за хакерство.
- Джон Дрейпер — один из первых хакеров в истории компьютерного мира.
- Кевин Поулсен — взломал базу данных ФБР и получил доступ к засекреченной информации, касающейся прослушивания телефонных разговоров. Поулсен долго скрывался, изменяя адреса и даже внешность, но в конце концов он был пойман и осужден на 5 лет. После выхода из тюрьмы работал журналистом, затем стал главным редактором Wired News. Его самая популярная статья описывает процесс идентификации 744 сексуальных маньяков по их профилям в MySpace.
- Гэри Маккиннон — обвиняется во взломе 53-х компьютеров Пентагона и НАСА в 2001—2002 годах в поисках информации об НЛО.
[править] Известные хакеры-писатели
- Крис Касперски — автор популярных книг и статей на компьютерную тематику.
- Кевин Митник — самый известный компьютерный взломщик, ныне писатель и специалист в области информационной безопасности.
[править] См. также
- Манифест хакера
- Фрикер
- Крэкер
- Хакерская атака
- Компьютерный терроризм
- Самоуправляемый общественный центр
- The Hacker's Handbook
- Журнал «Хакер»
- Лайфхакер
- Информационная безопасность
- Защита информации
- Информатика
- Antifa Hack Team
- Преступления в сфере информационных технологий
- Скрипт-кидди
- Гик
[править] Примечания
- ↑ Hacker в «Энциклопедическом словаре хакера» (Jargon File) (англ.)
- ↑ Bruce Sterling. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier. — Spectra Books, 1992. — ISBN 0-553-56370-X См. русский перевод на BugTraq
- ↑ Эрик Рэймонд. Как стать хакером (англ.) = How To Become A Hacker.
- ↑ Сергей Лукьяненко. Лабиринт отражений.
- ↑
«Вообще-то, обычно я избегаю слова „хакер“. В личном разговоре с технарями я еще могу назвать себя хакером. Но в последнее время смысл этого слова изменился: так стали называть мальчишек, которые от нечего делать заняты электронным взломом корпоративных ВЦ вместо того, чтобы помогать работе местных библиотек или уж, на худой конец, бегать за девочками.»— Linus Torvalds. Just for fun
- ↑ Пол Грэм в своей статье (Грэм П. Великие хакеры // Спольски Дж. Х. Лучшие примеры разработки ПО : книга. — СПб.: Питер, 2007. — С. 77—87. — ISBN 5-469-01291-3.) приводит Морриса в качестве примера хакера в первоначальном смысле слова.
[править] Литература
- Иван Скляров. Головоломки для хакера. — СПб.: БХВ-Петербург, 2005. — С. 320. — ISBN 5-94175-562-9
- Максим Кузнецов, Игорь Симдянов. Головоломки на PHP для хакера. — 2 изд. — СПб.: БХВ-Петербург, 2008. — С. 554. — ISBN 978-5-9775-0204-7
- Джоел Скембрей, Стюарт Мак-Клар. Секреты хакеров. Безопасность Microsoft Windows Server 2003 — готовые решения = Hacking Exposed Windows® Server 2003. — М.: Вильямс, 2004. — С. 512. — ISBN 0-07-223061-4
- Стюарт Мак-Клар, Джоэл Скембрей, Джордж Курц. Секреты хакеров. Безопасность сетей — готовые решения = Hacking Exposed: Network Security Secrets & Solutions. — М.: Вильямс, 2004. — С. 656. — ISBN 0-07-222742-7
- Майк Шиффман. Защита от хакеров. Анализ 20 сценариев взлома = Hacker's Challenge: Test Your Incident Response Skills Using 20 Scenarios. — М.: Вильямс, 2002. — С. 304. — ISBN 0-07-219384-0
- Стивен Леви. Хакеры, герои компьютерной революции = Hackers, Heroes of the computer revolution. — A Penguin Book Technology, 2002. — С. 337. — ISBN 0-14-100051-1
- Скородумова О. Б. Хакеры // Знание. Понимание. Умение : журнал. — М., 2005. — № 4. — С. 159—161.
- Савчук И. С. Сети, браузер, два ствола… // Компьютерные вести : газета. — 2010.
[править] Ссылки
- «Хаки» MIT (англ.)
- Российский журнал «Хакер»
- People committed to circumvention of computer security. This primarily concerns unauthorized remote computer break-ins via a communication networks such as the Internet (Black hats), but also includes those who debug or fix security problems (White hats), and the morally ambiguous Grey hats. See Hacker (computer security).
- A community of enthusiast computer programmers and systems designers, originated in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's (MIT's) Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) and MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.[2] This community is notable for launching the free software movement. The World Wide Web and the Internet itself are also hacker artifacts.[3] The Request for Comments RFC 1392 amplifies this meaning as "[a] person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular." See Hacker (programmer subculture).
- The hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g. the Homebrew Computer Club[4]) and on software (video games,[5] software cracking, the demoscene) in the 1980s/1990s. The community included Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Bill Gates and Paul Allen and created the personal computing industry.[6] See Hacker (hobbyist).
Today, mainstream usage of "hacker" mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1980s. This includes what hacker slang calls "script kiddies," people breaking into computers using programs written by others, with very little knowledge about the way they work. This usage has become so predominant that the general public is unaware that different meanings exist. While the self-designation of hobbyists as hackers is acknowledged by all three kinds of hackers, and the computer security hackers accept all uses of the word, people from the programmer subculture consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and emphasize the difference between the two by calling security breakers "crackers" (analogous to a safecracker).
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Hacker definition controversy
 |
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2011) |
- as someone who is able to subvert computer security, if doing so for malicious purposes it can also be called a cracker.
- a member of the Unix or the free and open source software programming subcultures or one who uses such a style of software or hardware development.
As a result of this difference, the definition is the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural jargon and used negatively,[8] including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware. Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still stubbornly use the term in both original senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended. It is noteworthy, however, that the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized. "Hacker" can therefore be seen as a shibboleth, identifying those who use the technically oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community.
A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that "hacking" describes a collection of skills which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to locksmithing, specifically picking locks, which — aside from its being a skill with a fairly high tropism to 'classic' hacking — is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of script kiddies in the popular usage of "hacker", despite the lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base. Sometimes, hacker also is simply used synonymous to geek: "A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals[...] It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment."[9]
Fred Shapiro thinks that "the common theory that 'hacker' originally was a benign term and the malicious connotations of the word were a later perversion is untrue." He found out that the malicious connotations were present at MIT in 1963 already (quoting The Tech, a MIT Student Magazine) and then referred to unauthorized users of the telephone network,[10][11] that is, the phreaker movement that developed into the computer security hacker subculture of today.
[edit] Computer security hackers
Main article: Hacker (computer security)
| This article is part of a series on |
| Computer hacking |
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| Hacker ethic |
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The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and the microcomputer BBS scene of the 1980s. It is implicated with 2600: The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup.
In 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today (with commentary by Philip Zimbardo) used the term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers". It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film Tron, Kevin Flynn (Jeff Bridges) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here". CLU is the software he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon,[12] but there was no public awareness about such activities.[13] However, the release of the film WarGames that year, featuring a computer intrusion into NORAD, raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, known as The 414s, broke into computer systems throughout the United States and Canada, including those of Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center and Security Pacific Bank.[14] The case quickly grew media attention,[14][15] and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in Newsweek entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover.[16] The Newsweek article appears to be the first use of the word hacker by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense.
Pressured by media coverage, congressman Dan Glickman called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking.[17][18] Neal Patrick testified before the U.S. House of Representatives on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the House that year.[19] As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, grey hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentor's "The Hacker Manifesto", published 1986 in Phrack.
Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title "Stalking the Wily Hacker", an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM. Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The popularity of Stoll's book The Cuckoo's Egg, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness.
[edit] Programmer subculture of hackers
Main article: Hacker (programmer subculture)
In the programmer subculture of hackers, a hacker is a person who
follows a spirit of playful cleverness and loves programming. It is
found in an originally academic movement unrelated to computer security
and most visibly associated with free software and open source. It also has a hacker ethic,
based on the idea that writing software and sharing the result on a
voluntary basis is a good idea, and that information should be free, but
that it's not up to the hacker to make it free by breaking into private
computer systems. This hacker ethic was publicized and perhaps
originated in Steven Levy's Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (1984). It contains a codification of its principles.The programmer subculture of hackers disassociates from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer the term 'cracker' for that meaning. Complaints about supposed mainstream misuse started as early as 1983, when media used "hacker" to refer to the computer criminals involved in the 414s case.[20]
In the programmer subculture of hackers, a computer hacker is a person who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term hack in this sense can be traced back to "describe the elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise" (Levy, 1984 p. 10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honour among like-minded peers as "to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity" (Levy, 1984 p. 10) The MIT's Tech Model Railroad Club Dictionary defined hack in 1959 (not yet in a computer context) as "1) an article or project without constructive end; 2) a project undertaken on bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)." "hacker" was defined as "one who hacks, or makes them." Much of the TMRC's jargon was later imported into early computing culture, because the club started using a DEC PDP-1 and applied its local model railroad slang in this computing context. Despite being incomprehensible to outsiders, the slang became popular in MIT's computing environments outside the club. Other examples of jargon imported from the club are 'losing' "when a piece of equipment is not working"[21] and 'munged' "when a piece of equipment is ruined".[21]
Hackers were influenced by and absorbed many ideas of key technological developments and the people associated with them. Most notable is the technical culture of the pioneers of the Arpanet, starting in 1969. The PDP-10 machine AI at MIT, which was running the ITS operating system and which was connected to the Arpanet, provided an early hacker meeting point. After 1980 the subculture coalesced with the culture of Unix. Since the mid-1990s, it has been largely coincident with what is now called the free software and open source movement.
Many programmers have been labeled "great hackers",[24] but the specifics of who that label applies to is a matter of opinion. Certainly major contributors to computer science such as Edsger Dijkstra and Donald Knuth, as well as the inventors of popular software such as Linus Torvalds (Linux), and Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson (the C programming language) are likely to be included in any such list; see also List of programmers. People primarily known for their contributions to the consciousness of the programmer subculture of hackers include Richard Stallman, the founder of the free software movement and the GNU project, president of the Free Software Foundation and author of the famous Emacs text editor as well as the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), and Eric S. Raymond, one of the founders of the Open Source Initiative and writer of the famous text The Cathedral and the Bazaar and many other essays, maintainer of the Jargon File (which was previously maintained by Guy L. Steele, Jr.).
Within the computer programmer subculture of hackers, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing code or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using inelegant kludges to accomplish programming tasks that are quick, but ugly, inelegant, difficult to extend, hard to maintain and inefficient. This derogatory form of the noun "hack" derives from the everyday English sense "to cut or shape by or as if by crude or ruthless strokes" [Merriam-Webster] and is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker" who produces "cool" or "neat" hacks. In other words to "hack" at an original creation, as if with an axe, is to force-fit it into being usable for a task not intended by the original creator, and a "hacker" would be someone who does this habitually. (The original creator and the hacker may be the same person.) This usage is common in both programming, engineering and building. In programming, hacking in this sense appears to be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. Some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have "hack value". In non-software engineering, the culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a "hacker" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and so has some sort of marketable skills. There is always, however, the understanding that a more skillful, or technical, logician could have produced successful modifications that would not be considered a "hack-job". The definition is similar to other, non-computer based, uses of the term "hack-job". For instance, a professional modification of a production sports car into a racing machine would not be considered a hack-job, but a cobbled together backyard mechanic's result could be. Even though the outcome of a race of the two machines could not be assumed, a quick inspection would instantly reveal the difference in the level of professionalism of the designers. The adjective associated with hacker is "hackish" (see the Jargon file).
In a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general, without necessarily referring to computers, especially at the MIT.[3] That is, people who apply the creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example reality hackers or urban spelunkers (exploring undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings). One specific example are clever pranks[25] traditionally perpetrated by MIT students, with the perpetrator being called hacker. For example, when MIT students surreptitiously put a fake police car atop the dome on MIT's Building 10,[26] that was a hack in this sense, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Another type of hacker is now called a reality hacker. More recent examples of usage for almost any type of playful cleverness are wetware hackers ("hack your brain"), media hackers and "hack your reputation". In a similar vein, a "hack" may refer to a math hack, that is, a clever solution to a mathematical problem. The GNU General Public License has been described as[who?] a copyright hack because it cleverly uses the copyright laws for a purpose the lawmakers did not foresee. All of these uses now also seem to be spreading beyond MIT as well.
[edit] Home computer hackers
Main article: Hacker (hobbyist)
In yet another context, a hacker is a computer hobbyist who pushes
the limits of software or hardware. The home computer hacking subculture
relates to the hobbyist home computing of the late 1970s, beginning
with the availability of MITS Altair. An influential organization was the Homebrew Computer Club. However, its roots go back further to amateur radio enthusiasts. The amateur radio slang referred to creatively tinkering to improve performance as "hacking" already in the 1950s.[27]A large overlaps between hobbyist hackers and the programmer subculture hackers existed during the Homebrew Club's days, but the interests and values of both communities somewhat diverged. Today, the hobbyists focus on commercial computer and video games, software cracking and exceptional computer programming (demo scene). Also of interest to some members of this group is the modification of computer hardware and other electronic devices, see modding.
In this context, a "hack" refers to a program that (sometimes illegally) modifies another program, often a video game, giving the user access to features otherwise inaccessible to them. As an example of this use, for Palm OS users (until the 4th iteration of this operating system), a "hack" refers to an extension of the operating system which provides additional functionality. Term also refers to those people who cheat on video games using special software. This can also refer to the jailbreaking of iPods.
[edit] Overlaps and differences
The main basic difference between programmer subculture and computer security hackers is their mostly separate historical origin and development. However, the Jargon File reports that considerable overlap existed for the early phreaking at the beginning of the 1970s. An article from MIT's student paper The Tech used the term hacker in this context already in 1963 in its pejorative meaning for someone messing with the phone system.[10] The overlap quickly started to break when people joined in the activity who did it in a less responsible way.[28] This was the case after the publication of an article exposing the activities of Draper and Engressias.According to Raymond, hackers from the programmer subculture usually work openly and use their real name, while computer security hackers prefer secretive groups and identity-concealing aliases.[29] Also, their activities in practice are largely distinct. The former focus on creating new and improving existing infrastructure (especially the software environment they work with), while the latter primarily and strongly emphasize the general act of circumvention of security measures, with the effective use of the knowledge (which can be to report and help fixing the security bugs, or exploitation for criminal purpose) being only rather secondary. The most visible difference in these views was in the design of the MIT hackers' Incompatible Timesharing System, which deliberately did not have any security measures.
There are some subtle overlaps, however, since basic knowledge about computer security is also common within the programmer subculture of hackers. For example, Ken Thompson noted during his 1983 Turing Award lecture that it is possible to add code to the UNIX "login" command that would accept either the intended encrypted password or a particular known password, allowing a back door into the system with the latter password. He named his invention the "Trojan horse". Furthermore, Thompson argued, the C compiler itself could be modified to automatically generate the rogue code, to make detecting the modification even harder. Because the compiler is itself a program generated from a compiler, the Trojan horse could also be automatically installed in a new compiler program, without any detectable modification to the source of the new compiler. However, Thompson disassociated himself strictly from the computer security hackers: "I would like to criticize the press in its handling of the 'hackers,' the 414 gang, the Dalton gang, etc. The acts performed by these kids are vandalism at best and probably trespass and theft at worst. ... I have watched kids testifying before Congress. It is clear that they are completely unaware of the seriousness of their acts."[30]
The programmer subculture of hackers sees secondary circumvention of security mechanisms as legitimate if it is done to get practical barriers out of the way for doing actual work. In special forms, that can even be an expression of playful cleverness.[31] However, the systematic and primary engagement in such activities is not one of the actual interests of the programmer subculture of hackers and it does not have significance in its actual activities, either.[29] A further difference is that, historically, members of the programmer subculture of hackers were working at academic institutions and used the computing environment there. In contrast, the prototypical computer security hacker had access exclusively to a home computer and a modem. However since the mid-1990s, with home computers that could run Unix-like operating systems and with inexpensive internet home access being available for the first time, many people from outside of the academic world started to take part in the programmer subculture of hacking.
Since the mid-1980s, there are some overlaps in ideas and members with the computer security hacking community. The most prominent case is Robert T. Morris, who was a user of MIT-AI, yet wrote the Morris worm. The Jargon File hence calls him "a true hacker who blundered".[32] Nevertheless, members of the programmer subculture have a tendency to look down on and disassociate from these overlaps. They commonly refer disparagingly to people in the computer security subculture as crackers, and refuse to accept any definition of hacker that encompasses such activities. The computer security hacking subculture on the other hand tends not to distinguish between the two subcultures as harshly, instead acknowledging that they have much in common including many members, political and social goals, and a love of learning about technology. They restrict the use of the term cracker to their categories of script kiddies and black hat hackers instead.
All three subcultures have relations to hardware modifications. In the early days of network hacking, phreaks were building blue boxes and various variants. The programmer subculture of hackers has stories about several hardware hacks in its folklore, such as a mysterious 'magic' switch attached to a PDP-10 computer in MIT's AI lab, that, when turned off, crashed the computer.[33] The early hobbyist hackers built their home computers themselves, from construction kits. However, all these activities have died out during the 1980s, when the phone network switched to digitally controlled switchboards, causing network hacking to shift to dialing remote computers with modems, when pre-assembled inexpensive home computers were available, and when academic institutions started to give individual mass-produced workstation computers to scientists instead of using a central timesharing system. The only kind of widespread hardware modification nowadays is case modding.
An encounter of the programmer and the computer security hacker subculture occurred at the end of the 1980s, when a group of computer security hackers, sympathizing with the Chaos Computer Club (who disclaimed any knowledge in these activities), broke into computers of American military organizations and academic institutions. They sold data from these machines to the Soviet secret service, one of them in order to fund his drug addiction. The case could be solved when Clifford Stoll, a scientist working as a system administrator, found ways to log the attacks and to trace them back (with the help of many others). 23, a German film adaption with fictional elements, shows the events from the attackers' perspective. Stoll described the case in his book The Cuckoo's Egg and in the TV documentary The KGB, the Computer, and Me from the other perspective. According to Eric S. Raymond, it "nicely illustrates the difference between 'hacker' and 'cracker'. Stoll's portrait of himself, his lady Martha, and his friends at Berkeley and on the Internet paints a marvelously vivid picture of how hackers and the people around them like to live and how they think."[34]
[edit] Filmography
- WarGames (1983)
- Sneakers (1992)
- The Net (1995)
- Hackers (1995)
- Pirates of Silicon Valley (1999)
- Track Down (2000)
- Swordfish (2001)
- The Social Network (2010)
[edit] See also
 |
This "see also" section may contain an excessive number of suggestions. Please ensure that only the most relevant suggestions are given and that they are not red links, and consider integrating suggestions into the article itself. (June 2011) |
- Black hat
- Computer crime
- Cyberwarfare
- Hacktivism
- Exploit (computer security)
- Extension (Mac OS)
- Grey hat
- Hack value
- Hacker (computer security)
- Hacker (programmer subculture)
- Hackerspace
- HAKMEM
- Haxie
- History of free software
- IT risk
- Kludge
- List of fictional hackers
- List of notable hackers
- Metasploit Project
- Patriot hacking
- Penetration test
- Timeline of computer security hacker history
- Vulnerability (computing)
- White hat (computer security)
[edit] References
- ^ Löwgren, Jonas (February 23, 2000). "Hacker culture(s): Origins". http://webzone.k3.mah.se/k3jolo/HackerCultures/origins.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Raymond, Eric (25 August 2000). "The Early Hackers". A Brief History of Hackerdom. Thyrsus Enterprises. http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/hacker-history/ar01s02.html. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
- ^ a b Eric Steven Raymond (2001). "What Is a Hacker?". How To Become A Hacker. Thyrsus Enterprises. http://catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html#what_is. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Levy, part 2
- ^ Levy, part 3
- ^ Sterling, Bruce. "cyberview_91.report". http://w2.eff.org/Misc/Publications/Bruce_Sterling/cyberview_91.report. ""hackers" had built the entire personal computer industry. Jobs was a hacker, Wozniak too, even Bill Gates, the youngest billionaire in the history of America -- all "hackers.""
- ^ DuBois, Shelley. "A who's who of hackers". Reporter. Fortune Magazine. http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2011/06/16/a-whos-who-of-hackers/. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
- ^ "TMRC site". Archived from the original on 2006-05-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20060503072049/http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html.
- ^ Alan Kay quoted in Stewart Brand, "S P A C E W A R: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums:" In Rolling Stone (1972)
- ^ a b Fred Shapiro: Antedating of "Hacker". American Dialect Society Mailing List (13. June 2003)
- ^ "The Origin of "Hacker"". http://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/
- ^ See the 1981 version of the Jargon File, entry "hacker", last meaning.
- ^ Computer hacking: Where did it begin and how did it grow?. WindowSecurity.com. October 16, 2002. http://www.windowsecurity.com/whitepapers/Computer_hacking_Where_did_it_begin_and_how_did_it_grow_.html.
- ^ a b Elmer-DeWitt, Philip (August 29, 1983). "The 414 Gang Strikes Again". [[Time (magazine)|]]: p. 75. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html
- ^ Detroit Free Press. September 27, 1983
- ^ "Beware: Hackers at play". Newsweek: pp. 42–46, 48. September 5, 1983
- ^ "Timeline: The U.S. Government and Cybersecurity". Washington Post. 2003-05-16. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50606-2002Jun26.html. Retrieved 2006-04-14.
- ^ David Bailey, "Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation," sp, p. 180, 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, 1984.
- ^ David Bailey, "Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation," sp, p. 180, 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, 1984.
- ^ j...@uvacs. UUCP (19-September-83 13:50:25 EDT). "for hack ( er ) s who want to complain to CBS". net.followup net.misc, net.followup. Web link.
- ^ a b Levy, Steven (2001) [1984]. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Penguin Books. p. 9. ISBN 0-14-100051-1.
- ^ Eric S.Raymond: A Brief History of Hackerdom (2000)
- ^ Raymond, Eric Steven (19 September 2003). "Reasons to Believe". The Art of Unix Programming. Addison-Wesley. http://www.faqs.org/docs/artu/ch20s06.html. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
- ^ Graham, Paul (2004). "Great Hackers". http://www.paulgraham.com/gh.html.
- ^ MIT Gallery of Hacks
- ^ http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/1994/cp_car/
- ^ hacker. http://catb.org/jargon/html/H/hacker.html. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ phreaking. http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/P/phreaking.html. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ a b cracker. http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/cracker.html. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Thompson, Ken (August 1984). "Reflections on Trusting Trust" (PDF). Communications of the ACM 27 (8): 761. doi:10.1145/358198.358210. http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~ganger/712.fall02/papers/p761-thompson.pdf.
- ^ Richard Stallman (2002). "The Hacker Community and Ethics: An Interview with Richard M. Stallman". GNU Project. http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/rms-hack.html. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Part III. Appendices. http://catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html#bibliography. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ A Story About ‘Magic'. http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/magic-story.html. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
- ^ Part III. Appendices. http://catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html. Retrieved 2008-10-18.
[edit] Further reading
- Michael Hasse: Die Hacker: Strukturanalyse einer jugendlichen Subkultur (1994)
[edit] Computer security
- Logik Bomb: Hacker's Encyclopedia (1997)
- Hafner, Katie; Markoff, John (1991). Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-68322-5.
- Sterling, Bruce (1992). The Hacker Crackdown. Bantam. ISBN 0-553-08058-X. http://www.mit.edu/hacker/hacker.html.
- Slatalla, Michelle; Joshua Quittner (1995). Masters of Deception: The Gang That Ruled Cyberspace. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017030-1.
- Dreyfus, Suelette (1997). Underground: Tales of Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier. Mandarin. ISBN 1-86330-595-5.
- Verton, Dan (2002). The Hacker Diaries : Confessions of Teenage Hackers. McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. ISBN 0-07-222364-2.
- Thomas, Douglas (2002). Hacker Culture. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3345-2.
- Taylor, Paul A. (1999). Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-18072-6. http://insecure.org/stf/them_and_us.txt.
- Levy, Steven (2002). Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-024432-8.
- Ventre, Daniel (2009). Information Warfare. Wiley - ISTE. ISBN 978-1-84821-094-3. http://infowar.romandie.com.
[edit] Free Software/Open Source
- Raymond, Eric S.; Steele, Guy L., eds. (1996). The New Hacker's Dictionary. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-68092-0.
- Raymond, Eric S. (2003). The Art of Unix Programming. Prentice Hall International. ISBN 0-13-142901-9.
- Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-19195-2.
- Turkle, Sherry (1984). The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-70111-1.
- Graham, Paul (2004). Hackers and Painters. Beijing: O'Reilly. ISBN 0-596-00662-4.
- Lakhani, Karim R.; Wolf, Robert G. (2005). "Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects". In Feller, J.; Fitzgerald, B.; Hissam, S. et al.. Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software. MIT Press. http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/sloan-school-of-management/15-352-managing-innovation-emerging-trends-spring-2005/readings/lakhaniwolf.pdf.
- Himanen, Pekka (2001). The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age. Random House. ISBN 0-375-50566-0.
- Ingo, Henrik (2006). Open Life: The Philosophy of Open Source. Lulu.com. ISBN 1-84728-611-9. http://www.openlife.cc/onlinebook.
[edit] External links
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Look up Hacker in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Interview with Steven Levy: About the different hacker subcultures and their relations.
- The Word "Hacker"
- What is a Hacker?, Brian Harvey
- "What is a Hacker?" by Bruce Schneier
- Steve Wozniak Discusses the original meaning of hacker
[edit] Computer security
- Hacking in 17 easy steps, by Doug Mclean 1995.
- History of Hacking Video Series by Discovery Channel
- Video Series, Hacking Community
[edit] Free Software/Open Source
- How To Become A Hacker by Eric S. Raymond, open source perspective
- The Hacker Community and Ethics: An interview with Richard M. Stallman, 2002
- "Bit Twiddling Hacks" By Sean Eron Anderson
- "Hackers and Painters" By Paul Graham
Ce sunt hackerii
- (în vernacular) cel care sparge/se infiltrează în calculatoarele altora[1][2] (cuvântul corect pentru asta este de fapt cracker,[2][3][4][5] sau sinonimul său „pălărie neagră”).[6] Acest cuvânt provine de la ocupația favorită a crackerilor și anume de a sparge parole. Se poate vorbi atât de crackeri care sparg programe shareware sau altfel de software sau media protejate, cât și de crackeri care sparg calculatoare și obțin accesul la informații confidențiale (de exemplu numere de cărți de credit), sau virusează calculatorul altora (de exemplu, pentru a-l folosi drept fabrică de spam sau a găzdui pornografie, de obicei ilegală, în scop de câștig comercial); sinonime: spărgător de programe și/sau spărgător de calculatoare;
- există o variantă de crackeri-hackeri care sparg sisteme informatice doar pentru a demonstra existența unor vulnerabiltăți în sistem, pe urmă comunicând proprietarilor/producătorilor sistemelor existența acestor exploituri și modul în care se pot proteja de astfel de atacuri (ei sunt numiți crackeri etici sau hackeri etici). Ei pot fi numiți și pălării albe (în limba engleză, „white hats”). Prin urmare, hacker etic este cineva care poate intra într-un sistem informatic pe alte căi decât cele oficiale, pentru a demonstra existența unor probleme de securitate și eventual a le remedia/elimina. Câteva exemple, chiar din România sunt (în ordine alfabetică): Alien Hackers, DefCamp , HackersBlog și Sysboard.
- (super)experți în tehnologii software și/sau hardware;[3]
- hobbyiști care trec peste granițele aparente existente în diverse dispozitive hardware și/sau în diverse programe de calculator.[2][3][7]
Ziarele americane au publicat numeroase articole care spuneau Un anumit hacker a spart un anumit sistem informatic, însemnând de fapt Un anumit expert în calculatoare a spart un anumit sistem informatic.[8][9] Folosirea termenului este corectă, căci dacă oamenii respectivi n-ar fi fost experți în calculatoare, nu ar fi putut sparge astfel de sisteme (pe atunci nu apăruseră haxorii, adică crackeri care nu se pricep la programare și utilizează pentru spart programele făcute de alții). Dar asocierea cuvântului hacker (expert în calculatoare) cu operațiuni imorale și/sau ilegale este doar „între urechile” publicului larg, care a citit astfel de articole, și a ramas cu impresia greșită (prejudecata, stereotipul) că hackerii (în general) ar fi niște infractori.
Se mai pot deosebi următoarele sensuri specializate (din subcultura informaticienilor) ale cuvântului hacker:
- cineva care cunoaște foarte bine un limbaj de programare sau mediu de programare, astfel încât poate scrie un program fără niciun efort aparent;
- cineva care inventează, proiectează, dezvoltă, implementează, testează sau îmbunătățește o tehnologie;
- cineva care oferă soluții neconvenționale dar adecvate împotriva exploiturilor, erorilor și ale unor alt fel de probleme, cu ajutorul mijloacelor disponibile.
Că a fi hacker sau cracker sunt două lucruri diferite, o arată hackerii Steve Gibson și Eric Steven Raymond. Gibson precizează:
„Vreau
să consacru acest moment pentru a-mi demonstra recunoștința pentru
enorma influență pe care munca altruistă a comunității mondiale de
hackeri a avut-o asupra cunoașterii pe care am dobândit-o. Ei nu sunt
«crackerii» malițioși și nici «script-kiddies» care sparg, fură, strâmbă
și distrug, abuzând astfel de cunoașterea pe care au dobândit-o de la
alții, ci ei sunt adevărații hackeri - în înțelesul originar al
termenului - care râvnesc la cunoaștere, pricepere și putere tehnologică
pentru valoarea lor intrinsecă.[10]”
E.S. Raymond spune în ghidul pentru cei care vor să devină hackeri:
„Hackerii
adevărați îi numesc «crackeri» și nu vor să aibă de a face cu astfel de
oameni. Hackerii adevărați îi consideră pe crackeri drept leneși,
iresponsabili și nu foarte deștepți, reproșându-le că a fi în stare să
spargi o protecție te face la fel de hacker pe cât a porni un automobil
prin efracție te face inginer. ... Diferența esențială este: hackerii
construiesc, crackerii distrug. Dacă vrei să devii hacker, citește în
continuare. Dacă vrei să devii cracker, citește grupul de Usenet news://alt.2600
și pregătește-te să faci de la cinci la zece ani de pârnaie din
momentul în care afli că nu erai așa deștept pe cât te credeai. Asta e
tot ce am avut de spus despre crackeri.[11]”
Într-o prelegere la Universitatea din Amsterdam, Wynsen Faber, de la Faber Organisatievernieuwing (birou de consultanță care evaluează activitatea unor servicii polițienești din Olanda)
a afirmat că infracțiunile informatice sunt printre cele mai ușor de
urmărit penal. Gradul de complexitate al urmăririi penale a unei
infracțiuni informatice nu se ridică nici pe departe la gradul de
complexitate al unei investigații în ce privește clasicul omor. El a
afirmat că tot ce trebuie pentru asta sunt niște informaticieni buni în
cadrul poliției și cooperare polițienească internațională în caz că s-a
acționat din alte țări. Se consultă logurile, se trasează IP-ul,
se iau datele personale de la provider, este arestat suspectul și pus
să dea declarație că în ziua... la ora... a spart un anume calculator
sau a pus un troian pe un sit de phishing.Dacă mulți infractori informatici nu sunt prinși este din cauză că Poliția nu apreciază gravitatea unor astfel de fapte. Conform lui Steve Gibson, costul unei investigații FBI asupra unei infracțiuni informatice se ridică la USD 200 000,[12] ceea ce face FBI-ul să urmărească doar infracțiunile informatice foarte grave; dacă dauna este sub USD 5000 se consideră că nu s-a comis nicio infracțiune.[12] În schimb, costurile procesului Ministerului Public olandez contra lui Holleeder (un infractor clasic) au fost estimate la cel puțin 70 de milioane de Euro.[necesită citare]
Motivațiile tipice pentru spărgătorii de calculatoare sunt: bani, distracție, ego, cauză social-politică (activism), admitere într-un anume grup social și obținerea unui statut social.[13] Banii pot fi obținuți de exemplu prin a afla numere de cărți de credit sau prin șantajarea unor firme, amenințate cu blocarea sitului lor de internet.[13] Distracție înseamnă că motivația de a sparge sisteme informatice nu este cea de a produce daune, ci instinctul de joc al lui Homo ludens, adică comportamentul jucăuș și de a face glume.[13] Ego: motivația constă în satisfacția datorată învingerii unor bariere hard/soft prin creativitate informatică.[13] Căuzașii (hacktiviștii) se folosesc de puterea pe care spargerea de calculatoare le-o conferă pentru a promova cauza în care cred cu tărie (drepturile omului, drepturile animalelor, adoptarea Sharia, etc.).[13] Intrarea în grupul social al hackerilor este determinată de merite dovedite în activitatea proprie ca hacker, ageamii nefiind admiși în astfel de cercuri.[13] Statutul social în ciberspațiu poate fi obținut prin a comunica altora experiența obținută de hacker, făcând astfel dovada priceperii proprii, și a înainta prin astfel astfel de conversații și contribuții în ierarhia socială a diverselor canale IRC pe care discută hackerii.[13]
[modificare] Etica hackerilor
Există unele zvonuri conform cărora hackerii ar urma o etică proprie acestui grup social. După cum am arătat mai sus, există „hackeri etici”, care respectă legile țării în care se află și sparg sisteme informatice doar pentru a aduce la cunoștința proprietarilor lor lipsa de protecție a acestora, spărgându-le doar cu acordul prealabil al proprietarilor sistemelor respective.Referindu-ne la hackerii care comit infracțiuni, numiți mai corect crackeri sau spărgători de calculatoare, din informațiile publicate de FBI nu ar rezulta că cei care comit infracțiuni informatice ar avea vreo etică respectabilă, ei comițând tot felul de fapte care pe lângă a fi infracțiuni sunt fapte profund antisociale (furt, fraudă, escrocherie, violarea dreptului la privacy, furt de identitate, șantaj, hărțuire, etc.) iar păgubiții sunt adesea oameni de rând, nu mari companii cărora li s-ar putea reproșa ceva.[14][15]
După Sam Williams, a existat într-adevăr o etică a hackerilor,[8] dar pe vremea respectivă hackerii nu erau infractori, ci doar informaticieni motivați de curiozitate și spirit de joacă. Epitetul de hacker aplicat infractorilor ar proveni după el din faptul că ziarele au luat notă că primii infractori informatici care au fost judecați făceau referire la etica hackerilor (ne-infractori) în apărarea proprie.[8]
[modificare] Hackeri renumiți
- Richard Stallman este considerat un hacker și părintele mișcării pentru software liber.
- John Thomas Draper zis „Captain Crunch”, creator al cutiei albastre, instrument de phreaking.[9]
- Steve Wozniak zis „Woz”, co-fondator al Apple, a produs primul PC de succes.[9]
- Loyd Blankenship zis „The Mentor”, autor al Manifestului unui hacker, membru al grupurilor Extasyy Elite și Legion of Doom.
- Kevin Mitnick în trecut unul dintre hackerii cei mai căutați de către FBI, actualmente este consultant pe probleme de securitate și autor, nu are voie să atingă calculatoare, altfel va face din nou închisoare.[9]
- Eric Corley (cunoscut și ca Emmanuel Goldstein) pe numele său adevărat Eric Gorden Corley, parte a comunității hacker-ilor începînd cu sf. anilor 1970, este editorul revistei 2600:The Hacker Quarterly și unul din inițiatorul conferințelor H.O.P.E.
- Fyodor pe numele său adevărat Gordon Lyon, este autorul scanerului de securitate Nmap, cît și a mai multor cărți și pagini web axate pe probleme de securitate a rețelelor. Este membru fondator a Proiectului Honeynet și vice-președinte al Profesioniștilor din domeniul IT pentru Responsabilitate Socială.
- Solar Designer este pseudonimul fondatorului Proiectului Openwall.
- Michał Zalewski, cunoscut și ca „lcamtuf” este un recunoscut cercetător pe probleme de securitate informațională.
- Gary McKinnon este un hacker britanic care riscă să fie extrădat în SUA sub acuzația de spargere de rețele, ceea ce a fost descris ca „cea mai mare spargere a rețelelor militare din toate timpurile”.
- Julian Assange hacker fondator al Wikileaks.
[modificare] Bibliografie
- Kilger, M., Arkin, O., Stutzman, J. The Honeynet Project (2004). „Profiling” (în engleză). Know Your Enemy. Revealing the Security Tools, Tactics and Motives of the Blackhat Community. (ed. 1). Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 505-556. ISBN 978-0321166463. http://old.honeynet.org/book/Chp16.pdf
- Salgado, R. The Honeynet Project (2004). „Legal Issues” (în engleză). Know Your Enemy. Revealing the Security Tools, Tactics and Motives of the Blackhat Community. (ed. 1). Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 225-252. ISBN 978-0321166463. http://old.honeynet.org/book/Chp8.pdf
- Gibson, S. (2002a) The Strange Tale of Denial of Service Attacks Against GRC.COM (un atac informatic documentat)
- Gibson, S. (2002b) DRDoS Distributed Reflection Denial of Service (alt atac informatic documentat)
- Gibson, S. (2005) An Acknowledgement of Debt to the World's Hackers (Gibson se referă la sensul originar al cuvântului hacker)
- The Mentor (1986) The Conscience of a Hacker, Phrack Inc., Vol. 1, nr. 7, p. 3 (Manifestul hackerului)
- Kirtchev, Chr. As. (1997) A Cyberpunk Manifesto (numit și Noul manifest al hackerului)
- Raymond, E.S. (2008) How To Become A Hacker (Cum poți deveni un hacker)
[modificare] Note
- ^ Sterling, Bruce. „Part 2(d)”. The Hacker Crackdown. McLean, Virginia: IndyPublish.com. p. 61. ISBN 1-4043-0641-2. http://www.mit.edu/hacker/hacker.html
- ^ a b c Internet Users' Glossary (RFC1392), ianuarie 1993.
- ^ a b c Hacker The Jargon File, version 4.4.7.
- ^ Cracker The Jargon File.
- ^ Dan Radu Cei 300 de hackeri care au speriat Bucureștiul fără să vrea - YAHOO OPEN HACK EUROPE 2011 Gândul, 15 mai 2011.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2008. http://dictionary.oed.com. „black hat n. colloq. (orig. U.S.) (a) a villain or criminal, esp. one in a film or other work of fiction; a ‘bad guy’; (b) Computing slang a person who engages in illegal or malicious hacking, creates or distributes computer viruses, etc.”
- ^ The Meaning of 'Hack' The Jargon File.
- ^ a b c Williams, Sam (2002). „Appendix B” (în limba engleză). Free as in Freedom. Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software.. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. ISBN 0-596-00287-4. http://oreilly.com/openbook/freedom/appb.html. Accesat la 5 septembrie 2009. „When police and businesses began tracing computer-related crimes back to a few renegade programmers who cited convenient portions of the hacking ethic in defense of their activities, the word "hacker" began appearing in newspapers and magazine stories in a negative light. Although books like Hackers did much to document the original spirit of exploration that gave rise to the hacking culture, for most news reporters, "computer hacker" became a synonym for "electronic burglar."”
- ^ a b c d Cf. The History of Hacking. Documentary. Discovery Channel.
- ^ Gibson (2005).
- ^ Raymond (2008:„What Is a Hacker?”).
- ^ a b Gibson (2002a:12).
- ^ a b c d e f g Kilger, Arkin și Stutzman (2004:509-519).
- ^ http://www.fbi.gov/wanted/alert/federal-cyber-crime-charges
- ^ http://www.fbi.gov/wanted/cyber/
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